قرار يتعلق بمادة dd121 \ dd122

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السلام عليكم ورحمة الله


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http://www.aou.edu.kw/addz/DD121andDD122.pdf

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يعني قسم ادب انجليزي لازم ياحدو هالماده والا لاء؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟

[oski]

Ideology
The term ideology is applied to different ‘schools of thought’ about how and why one attempts to understand social reality. For example, ‘liberalism’ is a name given to explanations of the human condition which starts from the premise (a proposition that forms the basis of an argument or from which a conclusion is drawn) that priority is to be given to freedom of individual choice and action.
Political ideologies
Political ideologies can be understood as maps of the social world which aim to tell us how that world works; networks or frameworks of concepts linked together by history and culture formed by abstracting(not concrete, based on general principles or theories rather than on specific instances) from social life, grounded (based on reason, reliable evidence, or good sense) in social relations and practices. They are linked to social change because they are pre******ive (establishing or adhering to rules and regulations. Pre******ive grammar= sets out rules of using language with the emphasis on correctness), help to shape understanding of actions, and to alter (change) society.
Environmental problems for political ideologies

Environmental problems of modern political ideologies
Responses of modern political ideologies
The challenge of green thinking
Green alternatives
Economics
* Continued world-wide industrialization is not environmentally sustainable (able to be maintained, protected)
*The market cannot solve environmental problems *The problem is not one of how much growth but what kind of growth to pursue
*Many environmental problems can be solved by markets if environmental resources are owned and priced Environmental problems are often unknown and complex.
*Money is not the measure of everything.
What about the future? Reorganize society away from material growth towards spiritual development.
*Replace the market with self-sufficiency and direct popular control (able to provide what is needed, e.g. by making enough money or growing enough food, without having to borrow or buy from others, - able to live independently of others, self-support)


Politics

Environmental problems are typically global in their causes and effects, whereas political authority and control is exercised on a national basis.
International co-operation is possible on the basis of self-interest among nation, especially if knowledge about the problem is available and agreed.
If problems are global in scope (space), then we must move beyond the nation-state and organize politics at a global level as well.
Encourage the development of global citizenship and reconstitute politics at global level through extending the UN system.

Culture
Environmental problems are evidence that we cannot subject (rule) nature to our control without creating problems.
We are part of nature, and therefore we must take an enlighten view of our own interest (self-interest), which includes a healthy nature.
Enlightened self interest is self interest (it ‘s human centered), what about the interest of the rest of nature?
Respect and protect the non-human natural world,
Need to a new spiritualism.
Need to non- reductionist, non- individualistic forms of thinking.

Evaluation
There are differences between the political ideologies of modernity and the newer green thinking. Green thinking itself now compete (battle, fight) the established (well-known, reputable) modern political ideologies.
We can understand modern ideology and green thinking as rival maps for the future, and the ongoing debate between these views of the world (ideologies), as well as their practical achievement, will have profound (great effect) consequences = result (relation between cause and effect = the relation between a result and its cause) for our future and that of the environment in which we live.
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Green politics is a political ideology which places a high importance on ecological and environmental goals, and on achieving these goals through broad-based, grassroots, participatory democracy. In addition to democracy and ecological issues, green politics is concerned with:
• civil liberties (such as rejection of industrialism, materialism and instrumental rationalism),
• social justice (such as- among all people in the world– rich and poor, north and east as well as current and future generations), and
• nonviolence.
Green politics is advocated by supporters of the Green movement, which has been active through Green parties in many nations since the early 1980s.
Supporters of Green politics, called Greens, share many ideas with the ecology, conservation, environmental, feminist, and peace movements

Just to remember
Ecology = embraces (hugs) every dimension of human experience and all life on earth.
Democracy = the free and equal right of every person to participate in a system of government, often practiced by electing representatives of the people by the majority of the people
Green movement = protection of environment= advocating protection of environment.
Green parties = Environmentalist political party = a political party whose primary policy is the protection of the environment.

[oski]

Hello dear friends, i am sis, hope to help you all. This is about political ideology
thank you

[oski]

i AM SENDING YOU 3 SUMMARIES FROM BOOK 5. HOPE YOU WOULD LIKE THEM
SIS

Knowledge is an organized body of information which can be : held in the mind of individuals or it can be embodied in physical form (I would find it in books, journals, web pages and so on); highly explicit and theoretical. On the other hand, knowledge can be tacit (implicit, indirect). We can think of knowledge knowing by doing rather than knowing by thinking or by reasoning. All knowledge is produced, collected, and disseminated (distributed) by human beings living in societies. Three key elements of the social construction of knowledge are explored:
o Role of language and discourse .
o Role of institutions - shape the ******* and standing of knowledge systems.
o Role of power.
Language is a social phenomenon and no de******ion or explanation of the world can be created without recourse to it. Language is linked with practice, truth is constructed and power is exercised. Thus knowledge is linked with power , and this links to economic, political and cultural or society.
Knowledge is subjected to criticism. Doctors’ knowledge is distinguished from ours by his/her practicing license. We are confronted with the idea of structure and agency. Experts are actually not free agents, because they derive their legitimacy from structure of knowledge, already accepted and agreed on, by the society.
Types of knowledge in a trip of doctor might be:
o Common sense knowledge based on experience (quantitative)
o Expert knowledge based on training. Not free agent, their legitimacy (legality) derived from structure, accepted and agreed on by society.
o Personal knowledge based on our own body (qualitative)
Common sense knowledge or medical knowledge:
• Acquired through living in a culture and through experience.
• Recognized by a community Recognized by a community
• Recognizes experts
• Often based on subjective knowledge
• Not regarded as authoritative
• Informed by history, experience and science
• Largely female, relatives and friends
Scientific medical knowledge
• Passed on, through ‘Learned bodies’ and scientific journals,
• Recognized by the community,
• Experts are central,
• Claims are to be based on objectivity,
• Varied degree of authority depending on the area in science, on the person and on the community,
• Identified by history, experience and theory,
• Largely male professionals.
The core aspects of medical science knowledge that developed were:
. • It is characterized by dichotomies(dichotomy=a separation into two divisions that differ widely from or contradict each other) or dualisms (theory of two opposing concepts), for example nature/culture, rational (logical)/emotional, physical/mental, objective/subjective. Then science can privilege (favour) one side of these dualisms, in particular that of objectivity over subjectivity and the rational over the emotional. Claims are based on objective knowledge, varying degrees of authority, depending on the area science, on the person, and on the community, informed by history, experience and theory. Experts are central.
• It has particular areas of concern (worry, fear) that are investigated:
- It employs particular methodologies, for example experimentation or observation. Methodologies are designed to uncover truth, assuming that the aim of science is to uncover the truth and make new discoveries.
- Medical scientific knowledge utilize the scientific method which is concerned with the ‘circuit of knowledge’. Its central point is that any scientific attempt to understand reality involves a continuous process. This starts with a question which gives rise to a competing explanatory claims and theories based on different observations and facts and on different inquiries points of view. Next the stage of assembling and ordering the available evidence, which may be qualitative or quantitative. Then evaluation, and yet another refined question and so on.
Different theorists’ approaches to knowledge
Michael Foucault a social constructionist offers a challenge to the notion (concept) that knowledge is discovered, the relationship between ‘power’ and ‘knowledge’ and ‘discourse’. [Foucault as a sociologists, structuralists and anthropologists was an armoire of knowledge]. He focused on language, representative (interpretation, meaning) and discourse. Meanings are constituted in and through language and other systems of representation. Discourses as passage of connected writing and speech are seen by Michel Foucault as systems of representation which regulates the meanings which can and cannot be produced. Language is linked with practice, truth is constructed and power is exercised. Thus knowledge is linked with power and representations have to be understood in the context in which meaning is produced. There is no truth outside discourse.
Foucault suggests that that it is appropriate for medicine to involve itself with changes over time and to create new meanings. He argues that the body is involved in a political field: ‘power relations have an immediate hold over it’. He claims that conditions of the body are produced through scientific and medical discourses.
Book page, 28, table 1.2
Popper:
Khun
Fox Keller:

JUST to Remember:
Objective: free of any bias or prejudice(performed opinion) caused by personal feelings.
Subjective: based on somebody's opinions or feelings rather than on facts or evidence.
Discourse: can be spoken or written

[oski]

HELLO, FROM SISI
Both religion and science are based upon one thing: knowledge. The difference between these two ways of thinking is the manner in which this knowledge is attained. In the case of religions, knowledge is originally gained through a revelation of God, or knowledge granted to a person by a holy entity; on the other hand, scientific knowledge is gained through experiments using the scientific methods.
The language of religion embraces spiritual aspects of experience based on faith and belief rather than observable, empirical testing. Religious knowledge is sanctified by appeal to a higher authority and to tradition; it is not subject to experimental testing and critical enquiry like science. Religious knowledge is produced through particular language, rituals and practices which are, on the whole, very different from those employed by science.
Scientific knowledge is seen as quantifiable, rational and subject to empirical testing, whereas religion deals with the immeasurable, the ineffable, and the divine.
Social scientist are specialist in scientific inquiry about the human condition. Scientific knowledge is socially constructed. Social scientists are specialists in scientific inquiry about the human condition. They are part of society which they study and are acculturated into it along with everyone else. Therefore the scientific method follows the ‘circuit of knowledge’. Its central point is that any scientific attempt to understand reality involves a continuous process. This starts with:
o a question which gives rise to
o a competing explanatory claims and theories based on different observations and facts and on different inquiries points of view,
o Next the stage of assembling and ordering the available evidence, which may be qualitative or quantitative,
o Then evaluation, and yet another refined question and so on.
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The four methodologies are as follows:
Positivist perspective:
Positivist re******ers are interested in observing social interaction, record and analyzing quantitative data in the form of statistics. To them social science is scientific and therefore it must be produced by a scientific method. They argue that social knowledge is only scientific, only valid and reliable, if it is produced by a scientific method, by which they mean experiment or verifiable observation. An experiment is a test of hypothesis undertaking in controlled condition, in which the re******er seeks to explore the reaction or response to particular stimuli , or to draw conclusion. A verifiable observation is a record of incidence, an event or occurrence which can be represented in a qualified form. According to positivists, the motives, intentions, values, and frameworks of understanding of the re******er are irrelevant (not important), being neither a part of the process, nor verifiable scientifically.
Positivists believe that social cause and effect (measurement) can be identified by quantitative data and that the re******er can both understand society and make predictions about social change by analysing quantitative data.
The key positivist method is statistical analysis (quantitative), which is commonly combined with comparative method.

Interpretive approaches to understanding go beyond the observation of what people do to why they do it. It is more concerned with the meanings behind people’s actions rather than the actions. Meanings are produced by individuals whose subjective frameworks of meaning vary. They explore the social by examining the interpersonal construction of meanings in local contexts, either by first-hand observation or by semi-structured interviews which allow respondents to express their understandings meanings and motivations. Interpretivist takes account of everyday’ skills and rejects physical sciences as models for all investigations. ‘Successful field re****** depends on the investigator’s trained abilities to look at people, listen to them, think and feel with them’ (Polsky, 1971, p. 124). So positivitists and interpretivists in many senses are opposed, with interpretivists gathering qualitative data on a smaller sample and focusing on question of meaning.




Critical perspective: is best known as ‘The Critical Theory ‘of the Frankfort School and the Feminist. The Frankfort School is a school of Marxist. Both Feminist and Marxist focus on the re****** context – the power relations structural inequalities in society- and on the potential uses or mis-uses of their re******.
Critical Theory represents a practice of self-reflexive thought and a prolix notion of materiality. In its attempt to comprehend a broader range of social relations than its predecessors, it draws from a crowded armoire of intellectual approaches (from psychoanalysis to German idealism, political economy, organization theory, and literary criticism), and it insists on radical theory’s proliferation of analytic objects
Critical perspective offers strengths as it provides insights into how social knowledge is produced and stresses on the importance of the social and historical context of re******. It reinforces notion that the re******er’s role is critical and has an impact on re****** findings.
Critical re******ers use the same methods as positivists, interpretivists, or others but argue that positivist and interpretivist re******ers have three weaknesses in undertaking their re****** they ignore its:
• social context,
• social re****** without a coherent theory of structured power,
• Finally, critical re******ers might raise questions about the impact on prevailing power structures on the re****** process and re****** findings.


Drawing on Anthropology, the cultural perspective is seen as about a way of life, hence re******ers focus on everyday life and popular culture. Re****** on culture deploys an eclectic range of methods. These focus on language, representative and discourse. Meanings are constituted in and through language and other systems of representation. Discourses as passage of connected writing and speech are seen by Michel Foucault as systems of representation which regulates the meanings which can and cannot be produced. Language is linked with practice, truth is constructed and power is exercised. Thus knowledge is linked with power and representations have to be understood in the context in which meaning is produced.
Therefore, cultural approaches make two key contributions to understanding social methods. First is the relationship between representational practices and how we understand and make sense of the world. Second is the notion of discourse, and the links between knowledge and power.

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